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会员注册五、余论
在专题研究取得重要进展的基础上，近年来也出现了一些总结性的论著，如布瑞特尔的《英国社会的商业化1000-1500年》、《1050-1530年英格兰与爱尔兰的经济与社会》，(69)索菲尔德的《中世纪英格兰的农民与共同体》，(70)斯蒂文·爱普斯坦的《中世纪后期欧洲经济—社会史1000-1500年》，(71)以及戴尔的《转型的时代：中世纪后期英格兰的经济与社会》(72)等。这些论著几乎完全颠覆了中世纪经济史的形象。众所周知，传统的中世纪经济史，关注的主要是耕作史与农业技术，如20世纪50年代策划而在70—80年代出版的多卷本《英格兰与威尔士农业史》(The Agrarian History of England and Wales)即是如此，以致被尖刻地批评为是一部“犁头与耕牛”的历史。(73)而近年来在经济—社会史的视野下，历史研究的主题与内容都得到极大的拓展和丰富。
《中世纪后期欧洲经济—社会史1000-1500年》体现了西方学者在中世纪经济领域研究的新进展。该书考察了1000年初兴时代至1490年代全球经济第一次浪潮期间欧洲经济—社会史的最为重要的一些议题。这500年经历了经济制度(如资本主义)和社会理论的兴起，它们将会对以后500年的世界产生重大影响。一些熟悉的议题，如人类在一个充满暴力和食物稀缺的世界里如何寻求食物、衣物、居住的历史，得到了展现，但其主题是普通男女的工作与日常生活。该书着眼于整个欧洲，逐一考察了家庭生活、经济与社会思想、战争、技术等重要问题，同时也关注了贸易、行业与农业的发展。14世纪的大饥荒与黑死病构成全书的转折点，以此为基点，该书考察了欧洲不平衡发展的缘由及其对死亡灾难的不同应对。尤其重要的是，该书强调了基督教文化与价值观对社会与经济发展的影响，这是传统的经济史所不具备的内容。
戴尔《转型的时代》一书的立足点既不是新人口论的经济史，也不同意布伦纳、希尔顿等强调阶级结构和阶级关系的史学，而是20世纪60—70年代发展起来的经济—社会史。它在方法论上吸收了经济史和马克思主义史学的长处，将经济史和社会史结合起来，从更宽广的范围考察社会转型问题，从而彻底颠覆了传统的中世纪观，后者认为中世纪贫困落后，而且将中世纪与现代完全对立起来。戴尔认为所谓社会转型是一个相当漫长的过程，期间伴随广泛的结构性变迁，这种变迁的上限可以追溯到13世纪，并一直持续到整个现代早期(16—18世纪)。当然，中世纪图景也得到了重新描绘，因而被称为“新中世纪观”。戴尔用“转型的时代？”这样的设问句式作为自己著作的标题，表明了一种开放的态度，旨在吸引更多的学者来参加社会转型问题的大讨论。
近年来的研究不仅改变了中世纪的面相，也使得农民的形象发生了很大的改变。在传统研究的视野下，中世纪的农民被描绘为这样一种形象：他们消极服从，在身体与情感上都束缚于土地，他们的经济以糊口为取向，不与市场发生关系，毫无技术知识，集体孤立地生活于一个封闭的“和谐世界”。到了20世纪80—90年代，这种形象已遭到了诸多批评、修正甚至于颠覆：在经济—社会史的视野下，学者们研究和揭示了农民的土地交易，乡村共同体的分层与内部冲突，重新评估了他们在发展技术和商业经济中的作用，以及他们采取政治行动的可能性。显然，这些研究提醒我们必须要更多地注意乡村社会的复杂性。
凡此种种，都表明了经济—社会史这一学科赋予历史学的新鲜活力，它对经济与社会互动的强调不仅为许多传统议题提供了全新的视野，也使得历史的解释更富有说服力。这一国际历史学的新方向将为我国的史学研究带来清新的空气，为我国社会主义现代化探索与实践提供一份厚重的学术资源。
注释：
①C. Dyer, "Economic History", in Alan Deyermond, ed., A Century of British Medieval Studies, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008, p. 160.
②Eric Kerridge, "Looking to the Future", in Pat Hudson, ed., Living Economic and Social History, Glasgow: The Economic History Society, 2001, pp. 190-191.
③Martin Chick, "Interesting But Not Popular: Making Economic History Mean More to Others", in Pat Hudson, ed., Living Economic and Social History, pp. 40-41.
④C. Dyer, "Economic History", in Alan Deyermond, ed., A Century of British Medieval Studies; C. Dyer and Phillip R. Schofield, "Recent Work on the Agrarian History of Medieval Britain", in Isabel Alfonso, ed., The Rural History of Medieval European Societies: Trends and Perspectives, Turnhout: Brepols, 2007, pp. 21-56; James Paul Masschaele, "Economic Takeoff and the Rise of Markets", in Carol Lansing and Edward D. English, eds., A Companion to the Medieval World, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009, pp. 89-110.
⑤Alan MacFarlane, The Origins of English Individualism, Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1978.
⑥R. Smith, "Families and Their Land in an Area of Partible Inheritance: Redgrave, Suffolk 1260-1320", in R. Smith, ed., Land, Kinship and Life-Cycle, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984, pp. 135-195.
⑦R. Smith, "Families and Their Land in an Area of Partible Inheritance: Redgrave, Suffolk 1260-1320", pp. 135-195; B. M. S. Campbell, "Population Pressure, Inheritance and the Land Market in a Fourteenth-Century Peasant Community", in R. Smith, ed., Land, Kinship and Life-Cycle, pp. 87-134; P. R. Schofield, "Dearth, Debt and the Local Land Market in a Late Thirteenth-Century Village Community", Agricultural History Review, vol. 45, no. 1, 1997, pp. 1-17; J. Whittle, The Development of Agrarian Capitalism: Land and Labour in Norfolk 1440-1580, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
⑧J. A. Raftis, Peasant Economic Development within the English Manorial System, Stroud: Alan Sutton, 1997; J. Masschaele, Peasants, Merchants, and Markets: Inland Trade in Medieval England, 1150-1350, New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997; P. R. Schofield and N.J. Mayhew, eds., Credit and Debt in Medieval England, c. 1180-c. 1350, Oxford: Oxbow, 2002。此外，最近还出版了一本论述各国土地市场(包括中世纪英格兰)的论文集，见L. Feller and C. Wickham, eds., Le marche de la terre an Moyen Age, Rome: 
de Rome, 2005。
⑨J. Masschaele, "Economic Takeoff and the Rise of Market", in Carol Lansing and Edward. D. English, eds., A Companion to the Medieval World, p. 96.
⑩Harry Rothwell, ed., English Historical Documents 1189-1327, vol. 3, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1975, pp. 881-884.
(11)R. H. Hilton, "Low-Level Urbanization: The Seigneurial Borough of Thornbury in the Middle Ages", in Z. Razi and R. Smith, eds., Medieval Society and the Manor Court, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, pp. 482-517; R. Smith, "A Periodic Market and Its Impact on a Manorial Community: Botesdale, Suffolk, and the Manor of Redgrave, 1280-1300", in Z. Razi and R. Smith, eds., Medieval Society and Manor Court, pp. 450-481; C. Dyer, "The Consumer and the Market in the Later Middle Ages", Economic History Review, vol. 42, no. 3, 1989, pp. 305-327.
(12)M. Kowaleski, Local Markets and Regional Trade in Medieval Exeter, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995; James A. Galloway, Derek Keene and Margaret Murphy, London and the Transformation of the English Economy, 1300-1600: Market Networks in Transition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003.
(13)R. R. Mundill, England's Jewish Solution: Experiment and Expulsion, 1262-1290, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
(14)N.J. Mayhew, "Modelling Medieval Monetisation," in R. H. Britnell and B. M. S. Campbell, eds., A Commercialising Economy, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1995, pp. 55-77.
(15)J. Masschaele, Peasants, Merchants and Markets: Inland Trade in Medieval England, 1150-1350.
(16)J. A. Raftis, Peasant Economic Development within the English Manorial System.
(17)P. R. Schofield, "Tenurial Developments and the Availability of Customary Land in a Later Medieval Community," Economic History Review, vol. 49, no. 2, 1996, pp. 250-267.
(18)J. Langdon, "Watermills and Windmills in the West Midlands, 1086-1500," Economic History Review, vol. 44, no. 3, 1991, pp. 424-444.
(19)J. Langdon, Mills in the Medieval Economy: England, 1300-1540, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004, chapter 5.
(20)C. Dyer, "The Consumer and the Market in the Later Middle Ages," pp. 305-326. 另见Ⅰ. Rush, "The Impact of Commercialization in Early Fourteenth-Century England: Some Evidence from the Manors of Glastonbury," Agricultural History Review, vol. 49, no. 2, 2001, pp. 123-139.
(21)S. A. C. Penn and C. Dyer, "Wages and Earnings in Late Medieval England: Evidence from the Enforcement of Labour Laws," Economic History Review, vol. 43, no. 3, 1990, pp. 356-376; J. Hatcher, "England in the Aftermath of the Black Death," Past and Present, no. 144, August 1994, pp. 3-35.
(23)H. Kitsikopoulos, "Standards of Living and Capital Formation in Pre-Plague England: A Peasant Budget Model," Economic History Review, vol. 53, no. 2, 2000, pp. 237-261; B. Dodds, "Estimating Arable Output Using Durham Priory Tithe Receipts, 1341-1450," Economic History Review, vol. 57, no. 2,2004, pp. 245-284.
(23)J. Hatcher, "Mortality in the Fifteenth Century: Some New Evidence," Economic History Review, vol. 39, no. 1,1986, pp. 19-38; B.F. Harvey, Living and Dying in England 1100-1540: The Monastic Experience, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1993; M. Bailey, "Demographic Decline in Late Medieval England: Some Thoughts on Recent Research," Economic History Review, vol. 49, no. 1, 1996, pp. 1-19.
(24)L. R. Poos, A Rural Society after the Black Death: Essex 1350-1525, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004; P. J. P. Goldberg, Women, Work and Life-Cycle, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992.
(25)Z. Razi, "The Myth of the Immutable English Family," Past and Present, no. 140, August 1993, pp. 3-44; M. Bailey, "Demographic Decline in Late Medieval England: Some Thoughts on Recent Research," Economic History Review, vol. 49, no. 1,1996, pp. 1-19.
(26)英国学者关于中世纪城市化的研究，国内学者已有较为详细的介绍，见徐浩：《中世纪英国城市化水平研究》，《史学理论研究》2006年第4期。
(27)P. M. Hohenberg, The Making of Urban Europe 1000-1994, Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press, 1995.
(28)R. H. Britnell, The Commercialisation of English Society 1000-1500, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1996, pp. 49, 115, 170; C. Dyer, "How Urbanized Was Medieval England?" in J.-M. Duvosquel and E. Thoen, eds., Peasants and Townsmen in Medieval Europe, Gent: Snoeck-Ducaju and Zoon, 1995, pp. 169-183.
(29)D. M. Palliser, ed., The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, Vol.Ⅰ, 600-1540, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000.(该著作由将近90位欧美学者共同完成)
(30)M. Beresford and H. P. R. Finberg, English Medieval Boroughs: A Handlist, Newton Abbot: David and Charles, 1973, p.39.
(31)H. Swanson, Medieval British Towns, London: MacMillan, 1999.
(32)C. Dyer, Making a Living in the Middle Ages: The People of Britain 850-1520, New Haven, London: Yale University Press, 2002, p. 190; C. Dyer, An Age of Transition?: Economy and Society in England in the Later Middle Ages, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2005, p. 120.
(33)R. H. Britnell, The Commercialisation of English Society 1000-1500, p. 115.
(34)C. Dyer, "The Consumer and the Market in the Later Middle Ages," p. 305.
(35)C. Dyer, Making a Living in the Middle Ages: The People of Britain 850-1520, p. 303; C. Dyer, An Age of Transition?: Economy and Society in England in the Later Middle Ages, pp. 24-25,130.
(36)H. Swanson, Medieval British Towns, pp. 14, 15.
(37)C. Dyer, "Small Towns 1270-1540," in D. M. Palliser, ed., The Cambridge Urban History of Britain, Vol. Ⅰ, 600-1540, pp. 506-509.
(38)M. Bereford and H. P. R. Finberg, English Medieval Boroughs: A Handlist, p.39.
(39)A. Dyer, Decline and Growth in English Towns 1400-1640, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995, pp. 31,32, appendix 5, 19-25.
(40)J. Patten, English Towns 1500-1700, Folkestone: Dawson, 1978, p.121.
(41)E. Searle, "Seigneurial Control of Women's Marriage: The Antecedents and Function of Merchet in England," Past and Present, no. 82, February 1979, pp. 3-43; R. Smith, "Marriage Processes in the English Past," in L. Bonfield, R. Smith and K. Wrightson, eds., The World We Have Gained: Histories of Population and Social Structure, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986, pp. 43-99.
(42)Ruth Mazo Karras, Common Women: Prostitution and Sexuality in Medieval England, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998; J. Rossiaud, Medieval Prostitution, Oxford: Blackwell, 1995.
(43)E. Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars: Traditional Religion in England 1400-1580, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.
(44)V. Bainbridge, Gilds in the Medieval Countryside: Social and Religious Change in Cambridgeshire c. 1350-1558, Woodbridge: Boydell, 1996; B. Kumin, The Shaping of a Community: The Rise and Reformation of the English Parish, c. 1400-1560, Aldershot: Ashgate, 1996; Katherine L. French, The People of the Parish: Community Life in a Late Medieval English Diocese, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2000.
(45)M. K. Mcintosh, Controlling Misbehavior in England, 1370-1600, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998.
(46)Barbara A. Hanawalt and David Wallace, Medieval Crime and Social Control, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1998.
(47)L. R. Poos, "Sex, Lies, and the Church Courts of Pre-Reformation England," Journal of Interdisciplinary History, vol. 25, no. 4, 1995, pp. 585-607.
(48)B. Kumin, The Shaping of a Community: The Rise and Reformation of the English Parish, c. 1400-1560; J. M. Bennet, "Conviviality and Charity in Medieval and Early Modern England," Past and Present, no. 134, February 1992, pp. 19-41; M. Müller, "Social Control and the Hue and Cry in Two Fourteenth Century Villages," Journal of Medieval History, vol. 31, no. 1, 2005, pp. 29-53; Paul A. Fideler, Social Welfare in Pre-Industrial England, London: Palgrave, 2006; Miri Rubin, Charity and Community in Medieval Cambridge, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002; James William Brodman, Charity and Religion in Medieval Europe, Washington, D.C.: Catholic University of America Press, 2009.
(49)S. Justice, Writing and Rebellion: England in 1381, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994.
(50)P. Hyams, "What Did Edwardian Villagers Understand by Law?" in Zvi Razi and Richard Smith, eds., Medieval Society and the Manor Court, pp. 69-102.
(51)L. Bonfield, "The Nature of Customary Law in the Manor Courts of Medieval England," Comparative Studies in Society and History, vol. 31, no. 3, 1989, pp. 514-534; L. Bonfield, "What Did English Villagers Mean by Customary Law?" in Zvi Razi and Richard Smith, eds., Medieval Society and the Manor Court, pp. 103-116; J. S. Beckerman, "Toward a Theory of Medieval Manorial Adjudication: The Nature of Communal Judgments in a System of Customary Law," Law and History Review, vol. 13, no. 1,1995, pp. 1-22; P. R. Schofield, "Peasants and the Manor Court: Gossip and Litigation in a Suffolk Village at the Close of the Thirteenth Century," Past and Present, no. 159, May 1998, pp. 3-42.
(52)C. Dyer, "Memories of Freedom: Attitudes towards Serfdom in England, 1200-1350," in M. Bush, ed., Serfdom and Slavery: Studies in Legal Bondage, Harlow: Longman, 1996, pp. 277-295; M. Muller, "The Aims and Organization of a Peasant Revolt in Early Fourteenth-Century Wiltshire," Rural History, vol. 14, no. 1, 2003, pp. 1-20.
(53)D. Carpenter, "English Peasants in Politics, 1258-1267," Past and Present, no. 136, August 1992, pp. 3-42; Z. Razi and R. M. Smith, "The Origins of the English Manorial Court Rolls as a Written Record: A Puzzle," in Z. Razi and R. M. Smith, eds., Medieval Society and the Manor Court, pp. 36-68.C. Briggs, "Taxation, Warfare, and the Early Fourteenth-Century 'Crisis' in the North: Cumberland Lay Subsidies, 1332-1348," Economic History Review, vol. 58, no. 4, 2005, pp. 639-672.
(54)W. C. Jordan, The Great Famine: Northern Europe in the Early Fourteenth Century, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1996; Bruce M. S. Campbell, ed., Be fore the Black Death: Studies in the "Crisis" of the Early Fourteenth Century, Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1991.
(55)J. Bolton, "'The World Upside Down': Plague as an Agent of Economic and Social Change," in W. M. Ormrod and P. G. Lindley, eds., The Black Death in England, Stamford: Paul Watkins, 1996, pp. 17-78; C. Dyer, "Rural Europe," in Christopher Allmand, ed., The New Cambridge Medieval History, Vol. Ⅶ, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998, pp. 106-120.
(56)E.I. Newman and P. D. A. Harvey, "Did Soil Fertility Decline in Medieval English Farms: Evidence from Cuxham, Oxfordshire, 1320-1340," Agricultural History Review, vol. 45, no. 2, 1997, pp. 119-136.
(57)A. Watkins, "The Woodland Economy of the Forest of Arden in the Later Middle Ages," Midland History, vol. 18, 1993; A. Watkins, "Landowners and Their Estates in the Forest of Arden in the Fifteenth Century," Agricultural History Review, vol. 45, no. 1, 1997, pp. 18-33.
(58)L. R. Poos, A Rural Society after the Black Death; M. Yates, "Change and Continuity in Rural Society from the Later Middle Ages to the Sixteenth Century: The Contribution of West Berkshire," Economic History Review, vol. 52, no. 4, 1999, pp. 617-637; E. Gemmill and N. J. Mayhew, Changing Values in Medieval Scotland: A Study of Princes, Money, and Weights and Measures, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995.
(59)B. M. S. Campbell, "Ecology versus Economics in Late Thirteenth-Century and Early Fourteenth-Century English Agriculture," in D. Sweeney, ed., Agriculture in the Middle Ages, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1995, pp. 76-108.
(60)J. Kanzaka, "Villein Rents in Thirteenth-Century England: An Analysis of the Hundred Rolls of 1279-1280," Economic History Review, vol. 55, no. 4, 2002, pp. 593-618; B. M. S. Campbell, "The Agrarian Problem of the Early Fourteenth Century," Past and Present, no. 188, August 2005, pp. 3-70.
(61)参见侯建新：《现代化第一基石》，天津：天津社会科学院出版社，1991年，第一章。
(62)H. Eiden, "Joint Action against 'Bad Lordship': The Peasant Revolt in Essex and Norfolk," History, vol. 83, no. 1, 1998, pp. 5-30.
(63)P. Coss, Lordship, Knighthood and Locality: A Study in English Society c. 1180-c. 1280, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.
(64)C. E. Moreton, The Townshends and Their World: Gentry, Law and Land in Norfolk c. 1450-1551, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992; C. Welch, "Ralph Wolseley, a Fifteenth-Century Capitalist," Transactions of the Staffordshire Archaeology and History Society, vol. 39, 2001, pp. 22-27; S. Dimmock, "English Small Towns and the Emergence of Capitalist Relations, c. 1450-1550," Urban History, vol. 28, no. 1, 2001, pp. 5-24.
(65)D. Youngs, "Estate Management, Investment and the Gentleman Landlord in Later Medieval England," Historical Research, vol. 73, no. 181, 2000, pp. 124-141.
(66)C. Dyer, "Were There Any Capitalists in Fifteenth-Century England?" in J. Kermode, ed., Enterprise and Individuals in Fifteenth-Century England, Stroud: Alan Sutton, 1991, pp. 1-24; C. Dyer, An Age of Transition?: Economy and Society in England in the Later Middle Ages.
(67)S. Pearson, The Medieval Houses of Kent, London: Royal Commission on Historical Monuments, 1994.
(68)Jane Whittle, The Development of Agrarian Capitalism: Land and Labour in Norfolk 1440-1580, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000.
(69)R. H. Britnell, The Commercialisation of English Society 1000-1500, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993; R. H. Britnell, Britain and Ireland 1050-1530: Economy and Society, Oxford: Oxford University Press，2004。前者主要论述商业化的影响，强调市场的发展对农业以及领主与农民关系的影响。
(70)P. R. Schofield, Peasant and Community in Medieval England 1200-1500, Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2003.
(71)Steven A. Epstein, An Economic and Social History of Later Medieval Europe, 1000-1500, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
(72)C. Dyer, An Age of Transition?: Economy and Society in England in the Later Middle Ages.
(73)C. Dyer and P. Schofield, "Recent Work on the Agrarian History of Medieval Britain," in Isabel Alfonso, ed., The Rural History of Medieval European Societies: Trends and Perspectives, p. 22.